The history of jeans, part 1: from the origin of denim to indigo

If you’ve ever heard that jeans originated in Europe but still have some questions, you’re in the right place! While the finished garment was invented in the United States, the fabric dates back to medieval Europe, where it was known as fustian. Cities like Genoa, Nîmes, and, more recently, Chieri have all claimed to be the birthplace of this fabric, so let’s clarify the history of jeans.

Timeline of key events in the history of jeans

The art of weaving cotton in Northern Italy

After the fall of the Roman Empire, weaving in Europe was primarily managed by families or small businesses. It wasn’t until the 12th century that this craft began to develop alongside agricultural activities, which were the most common in the region. This integration allowed farmers to earn additional income during less fertile seasons.

Meanwhile, cotton cultivation spread from India throughout the Islamic world between the 8th and 11th centuries. Advances in production technologies, along with the growth of trade and towns, transformed cotton from a luxury item into an everyday commodity with consistent sourcing. The earliest evidence of the word “cotton” being used in Italy dates to a Genoese document from 1156, which records a pre-emption to import from Sicily, where Arabs introduced its cultivation between the 9th and 10th centuries. It was referred to as “cutto,” derived from the Arabic word “qutun.”

The progressive ports of Venice and Genoa, the Po River and other waterways, and the Alpine passes served as crucial commercial routes connecting the Mediterranean basin to the rest of Europe. Venice established two annual expeditions to the east with large-tonnage ships to import high-quality cotton. All these factors significantly contributed to the rise of a thriving cotton textile industry in Northern Italy, particularly in the populous towns of the Po Valley, which were already established centers for woolen cloth production.

The rise of the fustian trade

The cotton industry in Northern Italy was characterized by a complex network of urban and rural workers, featuring a regional division of labor in spinning, weaving, and dyeing. It relied heavily on cooperation among guilds, government officials, and international merchants to facilitate the trade of semi-processed raw materials.

The demand for cotton textiles grew rapidly due to their low cost and versatility. These textiles were available in both pure- and mixed-fiber fabrics, in a variety of colors and patterns. Their quality and origin were assured through registered trademarks and guild seals. Additionally, cotton was easier to process than wool and hemp, and was also cheaper than wool. A type of fustian made with a linen warp and a cotton weft emerged as one of the most popular textiles in Northern Italy. The trade in fustian is well documented from the 12th century, although it is unclear whether it was produced locally or imported. However, some Italian documents of the 9th and 10th centuries already referred to fustian as a cotton cloth.

Northern Italian cotton manufacturing reached its peak around 1300, particularly in Milan, which became famous for producing refined fustian. However, between 1338 and 1347, Milan faced a significant crisis as the German market, its primary importer, began producing its own fabrics. This development made Germany self-sufficient and a competitor in the textile market. In the following centuries, Milan regained a competitive edge in high-quality textile production through superior dyeing and finishing processes, maintaining a monopoly over fine cloth production alongside Cremona.

The expansion of cotton production in Central Europe eventually saturated the market, putting pressure on raw-material prices. However, the entire situation provided an opportunity for fustian manufacturing in Chieri to flourish.

A. Pittaluga, Coal worker in Ponte Spinola in Genoa, Duché de Gênes, Paris.

Woad dyeing know-how

In 1144, Cathars arrived in Italy after fleeing France, where they faced significant persecution by the Catholic Church. Catharism was a Christian dualist or Gnostic movement that thrived in Southern Europe between the 12th and 14th centuries and was considered heretical. However, in Italy, the movement was more tolerated, and Cathars settled primarily in the cities of Chieri and Milan. The Cathars brought their customs and culture to the area, including their traditional knowledge of cultivating woad, from which they extracted the blue dye used to color certain types of fustian.

In Italy, woad is known as “guado” or “gualdo,” derived from the late medieval Latin term “gualdum.” This plant was used for dyeing as far back as 9000 B.C., as evidenced by finds at Catalhoyuk, in Turkey, and was used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. During the Middle Ages, woad gained popularity throughout Europe, particularly in Chieri, as indicated by various historical elements. Firstly, Via del Gualdo and Via della Gualderia still exist in the city, which were home to several dye works; the last of these, Tintoria Parigi, closed in the mid-20th century. Additionally, there is a regulation concerning woad that dates back to 1419. Finally, documentation exists detailing the quantities of this pigment sold or exchanged with textile operators across different regions.

From woad to indigo

In 1498, Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route between Europe and India, which facilitated the import of indigo to the Old Continent. Indigo dye had already been known in the Mediterranean basin since ancient times, utilized by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. The term “indigo” itself derives from the Latin word “indicum,” meaning “from India.” However, before the discovery of this new route, indigo was rarely used in Europe due to its high transportation cost.

Indigo is derived from the fermented leaves of Indigofera plants and yields a pigment similar to woad but more concentrated, offering greater economic advantages. Additionally, indigo proved to be better suited for fibers such as cotton and flax. However, the decline in woad production was gradual, as dyers continued to use both pigments for some time: woad for initial dyeing and indigo to enhance the brilliance of the blue color. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, woad producers felt so threatened by the rise of indigo that they attempted to ban its use, even labeling it “the devil’s dye” and threatening death to those who would use it.

Fun fact: Leonardo da Vinci came up with the mechanical loom

In 1495, while working for the Sforza family in Milan, Leonardo da Vinci became the first to sketch a mechanical weaving loom and an automatic shuttle that did not require manual operation. These designs can now be found on page 985 of the “Codex Atlanticus.”

However, actual mechanical looms were developed over 200 years later during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. In 1733, John Kay built on Leonardo’s ideas and patented the flying shuttle, which was automatically propelled by a paddle. This invention accelerated the weaving process and allowed for the production of larger fabrics than those made with a hand-operated shuttle.

About blue fustian

At the end of the 15th century, weaving woad-dyed fustian was one of the main economic activities in Chieri. It seems that this fabric was sold to sailors in the port of Genoa, who initially used it to cover goods and produce sails. Fustian sails are also mentioned in 1255 Venetian maritime charters. By the 16th century, it began to be manufactured into durable workwear.

According to a manuscript discovered in 1945 detailing the techniques and art of fustian, Chieri competed with the French city of Nîmes in the production of blue fustian during the 15th century. The term “denim” actually comes from “de Nîmes,” referring to the fabric produced in Nîmes. Serge de Nîmes was a woad-dyed twill originally made from wool, which was later blended with cotton and hemp. Unlike the denim we know today, which features a 3x1 weave with blue-dyed yarn in the warp, fustian had a 2x1 weave with the blue-dyed yarn in the weft. Each city had its own fustian manufacturing techniques, and these fabrics could be made from cotton, wool, hemp, or linen, presenting different colors.

Blue fustian is the true ancestor of the jeans fabric we use today, which evolved from a fabric with a blue warp and a white weft, shipped to London from Genoa in the 17th century. Genoa became indeed a significant collection port for fustian fabrics intended for export, some of which also reached the United States. This fabric became known as “bleu de Gênes,” the French for “blue of Genoa,” which eventually gave rise to the term “blue jeans.” We will further explore the roles of Chieri and Genoa, and the arrival of denim in the U.S., in the next chapters of our history of jeans.