The history of jeans, part 3: from workwear to rebellion

Now, you are ready to leave Europe and travel overseas with denim fabric that has been shipped to the United States. This fabric will help shape the enduring legend of blue jeans, which are set to take the world by storm after World War II. Let’s explore how this unfolds in our third and final chapter of the history of jeans.

The synthetic indigo revolution

In the previous chapters, we learned that fustian was often dyed using blue pigments derived from two plants: woad and indigo. All dyes during that time were indeed obtained from natural sources. The first synthetic dye was discovered accidentally in 1856 by William Henry Perkin. At just 18 years old, this English chemist was attempting to synthesize quinine, a malaria medication, from coal tar when he unexpectedly produced a purple dye that he called mauveine. This synthetic dye quickly gained popularity for its vibrant, stable color, making it ideal for the textile industry and other applications. Mauveine began to be produced commercially, and synthetic dyes soon replaced natural alternatives, as they offered a broader range of colors and were produced more consistently and affordably.

Perkin’s invention opened the door for further advancements in the dyeing industry, supported by the rise of major players in the chemical sector that invested heavily in synthetic dyes. In 1865, German chemist Adolf von Baeyer began working on the synthesis of indigo. Indigo was in high demand, but the traditional method of extracting the pigment from Indigofera leaves was labor-intensive and complicated. By 1897, an economically viable process for synthesizing indigo was developed, leading to commercial production. In 1905, von Baeyer was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his contributions to the industry. Within a few years, synthetic indigo had almost entirely replaced the naturally derived dye from the Indigofera plant, as it was cheaper, easier to produce, and more stable.

U.S. Patent No. 139,121

The end of the 19th century also marked the official birth of modern blue jeans. Levi Strauss, a German entrepreneur born Löb Strauß in 1829 in Buttenheim, moved to San Francisco during the Gold Rush. There, he teamed up with his brother-in-law, David Stern, to launch Levi Strauss & Co., where they sold workwear fabrics to miners and pioneers.

A few years later, tailor Jacob Davis, originally named Jākobs Jufess and born in 1831 in Riga, Latvia (then part of Russia), settled in Reno with his family. One day, the wife of a woodcutter asked him to make some sturdy work pants for her husband. This inspired Davis to reinforce tough cotton denim with copper rivets at the weakest points.

As word spread among workers heading west, the pants gained immense popularity, surpassing Davis’s ability to keep up with demand. Recognizing their potential, he approached Strauss—who was supplying him with fabric—for financial backing to obtain a patent. On May 20, 1873, they were granted U.S. Patent No. 139,121 for “Improvements in Fastening Pocket Openings,” thus officially giving birth to modern blue jeans. Later that year, Davis added a distinctive double-orange-thread design to the back pocket. However, these pants were initially called “waist overalls” or simply “overalls,” and the term “jeans” didn’t come into use until later. This fit has evolved over time, but we still wear it with Levi’s® 501®, which The New York Times declared “the garment of the 20th century” in 1999.

When Strauss opened a tailor shop in San Francisco for production, Davis relocated there to take charge. As demand continued to grow, that small shop expanded into a full manufacturing plant, which Davis managed for the rest of his life.

Fun fact: Garibaldi wore jeans while landing in Marsala

Did you know that Giuseppe Garibaldi, known as the Hero of the Two Worlds, wore jeans? In May 1860, during his famous landing at Marsala, Garibaldi wore a pair of pants made of Genoese blue fustian, resembling those worn by port workers. You can now see them at the Central Museum of the Risorgimento in Rome. The hems reach his ankles, and there’s even a patch made from the same fabric on the left knee to cover a tear—legend has it that this tear resulted from an assassination attempt he survived. While these pants don’t have all the classic features we associate with modern jeans today, which were patented 13 years later, they are still considered an early version of contemporary blue jeans.

Garibaldi’s jeans.

How jeans took off in the United States

Jeans gained popularity among workers heading west in search of a better life, including miners, farmers, and other blue-collar workers. They became a symbol of dignity, resilience, and identity in the United States. So closely associated with the American dream, jeans became essential for those vacationing at dude ranches. These ranches reached their peak in the 1930s, attracting people from the East Coast and even some Europeans who wanted to experience the romantic and adventurous cowboy life they had seen in movies and read about in books. Visitors would stay at working ranches, help with daily chores, and wear classic cowboy attire, including jeans. For many women, it was a chance to wear pants for the first time. With the rising popularity of ranch stays, Levi’s® launched its first line of female jeans in 1934, modifying the men’s design to better fit women, specifically targeting those visiting dude ranches.

Jeans were also embraced by the two key U.S. institutions that promoted progress and discipline between the 19th and 20th centuries: the railroads and the military. Denim became the official uniform for railroad workers such as engineers, brakemen, and conductors. It was sturdy enough to withstand long hours in dirty, greasy environments, while the indigo color helped hide stains and maintain a neat, professional appearance—just as it did for dockworkers in Genoa. Similarly, during World War I and World War II, the U.S. military issued denim workwear to soldiers, especially for non-combat roles like mechanics, engineers, and Navy personnel. This fabric was both durable and comfortable, and it was easy to produce.

The two World Wars significantly changed the perception of jeans in the U.S. and around the world, as we’ll see later. When women in the U.S. were called to take on jobs while the men fought overseas, denim became a powerful symbol of their empowerment, exemplified by the iconic image of Rosie the Riveter and her famous phrase, “We Can Do It!” The poster, created by artist J. Howard Miller, was a crucial part of U.S. propaganda aimed at boosting morale and promoting patriotism. Rosie the Riveter emerged as a powerful feminist icon, showcasing women’s growing economic influence. After WWII, surplus military items, including denim, flooded the market, increasing its popularity and availability in the United States and liberated countries.

Construction workers in the United States.

From workwear to fashion

Jeans have gained immense popularity due to a combination of factors that transformed them from mere workwear into essential fashion items, with Hollywood playing a significant role in this evolution. As early as the 1930s, stars like Gary Cooper, Ginger Rogers, and Carole Lombard were already wearing jeans. Notably, in 1939, John Wayne famously wore Levi’s® 501® jeans in the film “Stagecoach.”

After World War II, the middle class still viewed denim as primarily work attire. However, younger generations sought to break free of this traditional image, adopting jeans to distance themselves from societal norms. Icons like Marlon Brando in “The Wild One” (1953) and James Dean in “Rebel Without a Cause” (1955) embodied this new attitude. Music legends such as Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and The Rolling Stones further propelled denim into the cultural spotlight. Even Marilyn Monroe was noted for wearing jeans both on and off set. By the 1960s, jeans had become ubiquitous, appearing at events like Woodstock in ’69, civil rights marches, and Vietnam War protests. They emerged as symbols of equality, rebellion against materialism, and self-expression.

Interestingly, this rebellious spirit surrounding jeans even reached the Soviet Union. While jeans weren’t officially banned during the Cold War, they were difficult to acquire since they were associated with Western culture, which the Soviet government resisted. Consequently, jeans became highly desirable on the black market until the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, after which they could be sold in stores.

In 1976, Calvin Klein became the first designer to showcase jeans on the runway. Around the same time, other innovative designers like Elio Fiorucci and Peter Golding recognized the potential of jeans to transcend their traditional role. They pioneered stretch denim, blending cotton with elastane to create more form-fitting options for women without sacrificing comfort. Golding introduced stretch jeans at his store in Chelsea, London, in 1978, which was a hotspot for trendsetters like Twiggy and David Bowie. Fiorucci was inspired to create tight jeans after observing girls in Ibiza emerging from the water with their wet flare jeans perfectly contoured to their bodies. Collaborating with designer Mario Morelli, Fiorucci modified the cut and used stretch denim to develop a new fit that quickly became a must-have for women in the ’80s.

When jeans arrived in Japan

When World War II soldiers wore denim off duty, they significantly contributed to its rising popularity in Europe and the Pacific. Their clothing became associated with freedom and progress. In Japan, the U.S. occupation introduced a wave of American culture, with fashion playing a crucial role in this societal shift. Blue jeans earned the nickname “G.I. pants,” often called simply “jiipan” or “G-pan.” As writer Masatake Kitamoto noted, jeans embodied a “blue of victory” vibe. Selling surplus U.S. military clothing, often on the black market, became a booming business because, for years, the only denim available in Japan was what the U.S. Army left behind. However, in 1957, the Japanese government relaxed import restrictions, allowing retailers to begin importing second-hand jeans, followed by some new ones. The catch was that people in Japan preferred the worn-in, faded look of vintage denim. When they tried on new jeans, they often found them too stiff and uncomfortable.

Since the early 1900s, Kojima in Okayama Prefecture had been a center for Japan’s cotton industry, particularly in workwear and school uniforms. However, with the rise of synthetic materials in the 1950s, many companies based there faced challenges. They saw an opportunity in creating jiipans. Initially, these companies imported materials and equipment from the U.S. to replicate their styles. The biggest hurdle was dyeing; Japanese craftspeople struggled to dye denim using their traditional indigo techniques. Nonetheless, their meticulous attention to detail paid off, and they eventually succeeded in creating accurate replicas of the American jeans that were gaining popularity in Japan. As U.S. brands began mass-producing jeans, thereby reducing quality, the Japanese denim industry seized the opportunity. They became renowned for high-quality denim, particularly selvedge denim, which is the most traditional type but has become rare since the 1960s, when more efficient methods replaced shuttle looms for the large-scale production of standardized jeans. In 1972, Kurabo produced Japan’s first selvedge denim.

Candiani’s selvedge denim.